Lipids

Lipids;
It is saturated and unsaturated.
Saturated;
Milk, butter, coconut oil , phone oil.
Unsaturated;
Butter, margarine

tRNA and function

tRNA;
Transfer RNA
10 to 15℅ of total cellular RNA.
Molecular weight 25000 to 30000 Da.
It is made up of single strand polynucleotide chain.
Structure of tRNA
    Primary structure
It is a linear sequence of nucleotides.
60 to 90 nucleotides long but most commonly 76 nucleotides.
   Secondary structure
It was proposed by Robert Holli in 1968.
   Tertiary structure
It help in recognize of amino acey tRNA synthesis enzyme.
    

MOIST HEAT STERILIZATION

Moist heat sterilization simple notes:

To above 100°c.

Saturated steam under pressure.

Steam sterilization - autoclave - Chamberland in 1884 hot saturated steam continues to enter the chamber reaches desired to and pressure 121°c for 15lbs.

It destroys all vegetative cells and spore in 10 - 12 minutes.

It effectively kill microorganisms by degrading nucleic acid and denaturing enzyme and proteins.

Distribution cell membranes.

Extended sterilization - 121°C at 15lbs for 70 minutes.

Biological indicator is used to for check the sterility of autoclave.

After autoclaving,the ampule is aseptically broken and the culture incubated for several days.

If the test organism does not grow in the medium, the sterilization run has been successful.

Sometimes either special taps that spells the word sterile or change in the color of the paper stripe represents the autoclave is sterile.

The method is convenient and save time.

DARK FIELD MICROSCOPE

Dark field microscope;

Produce a dark background against which objects are bright illuminated.

Uses a special kind of condenser called annular stop transmits a hollow cone of light from the source of illumination.

Light directed through the condenser does not enter the objective field is dark.

Some of the light rays will be scattered or diffracted.

Diffracted light will enter the objective and reach the eye.

Object appear bright against background.

Applications :
For examination of unstained microorganisms went mount hanging drop method.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS INTERNAL STRUCTURE

Eukaryotic cells ;

1. Multicellular form - common, with extensive tissue formation.
2. Cell wall - Present in plant and fungi cells only
3. Plasma membrane - present
4. Nucleus - present
5. Nuclear membrane - present
6. Chromatin with histone - present
7. Genetic material - Linear double - stranded DNA : genes frequently interrupted by intron sequence, especially in higher Eukaryotes.
9. Nucleoli and mitotic apparatus - present
10. Plasmids - Rare
11. Cellular organelles ;
 Mitochondria - present
 Endoplasmic reticulum - present
 Vacuoles - present
 Lysosomes - present
 Chloroplasts - present(only in plants)
 Centrioles - present (Absent in higher plants)
 Ribosomes present (80S)
Microtubules - present
Flagella - Complex 9+2 structure of tubulin and other protein.
12. Respiration - All aerobic, but some facultative anaerobes by secondary modifications.
13. Metabolic patterns - All share cytochrome electron transport chains, Krebs cycle oxidation, Embden - Meyerhof glucose metabolism or glycolysis
14. Photosynthetic enzyme - Enzyme packaged in plastids bound by membrane
15. Sexual system - Both sexes involved in sexual participation and entire genomes transferred; alternation of haploid and diploid generation is also evident.

FUNCTION OF THE CHLOROPLAST : PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis ;
It is well evident now that the process of photosynthesis consists of the following two steps:

1. Light reaction : 
It is also called Hill reaction, photosynthetic electron transfer reaction or photochemical reactions.
In light reaction solar energy is trapped in the form of chemical energy of ATP and as reducing power in NADPH.
During it, oxygen is evolved by photolysis or splitting of water molecule.
Light  reaction occur in thylakoid membrane.

2. Dark reaction :
It is also called Calvin reaction, photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle (PCR cycle), carbon-fixation reaction or thermo-chemical reaction.
In dark reaction, the reducing capacity of NADPH and the energy of ATP are utilized in the conversion of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate.
Such a process of "carbon fixation" occurs in the stroma of chloroplast.

MICRONUTRIENTS

Micronutrients ;

Mo:-
Involved in enzymatic reduction of ammonia conversion of in organic phosphate organic form.

Zn:-
Involved in production of growth in hormones and chlorophyll active in respiration and carbohydrate synthesis.

Be:-
Involved in production of growth hormones and chlorophyll active in respiration in carbohydrate synthesis.

Cu:-
Involved in photosynthesis, assito in chlorophyll synthesis. Used as reaction catalysts.

Co:-
Compound of some vitamins.

Mn:-
Enzymatic cofactors.
Vitamins - RNA , DNA
Encoding part of recomplex in pashate from is part cell m.m cell.

Thymine:-
Essential as co- enzyme in citric acid cycle.

INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

Industrial Biotechnology simple notes ;
Media preparation providing of microorganisms substrate for product production.

Fermentation - Fermenter

Conversion of sugar - alcohol,acid,gas
Alcohol - wine
Acid - glucose
Gas - Carbon dioxide

Fermeter - is a device in which the cultivated and motivated to produce a derived product.
Upstream - harvest of product from media and purification.
Downstream - provides media, substrate, microorganisms - for the production of product.

To learn about various bio process and engineering techniques and is important in industries.

Reduction of energy consumption as well as pollution and waste generation for product.

Benefits ;
Develop new products.
Improve industrial process Replacement of petroleum based feedstock.
Improved product quantity.

BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity definition ;
Biodiversity is the variety and differences among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems.

Significance of biodiversity ;
1. Biodiversity is very important for human life as we depend on plants, microorganisms, and animals for our food, medicine and industrial products.
2. Biodiversity protects the fresh air, clean water and productive land.
3. It is also important for forestry, fisheries and agriculture, which depend on rich variety of various biological resources available in nature.
4. Loss of biodiversity has serious economic and social costs for any country.

Loss of biodiversity ;
1. The farmers introduce new hybrid seeds in agriculture fields.
2. Human activities like deforestation, reclamation and construction of dams.
3. Increasing industrial activities.

Levels of biodiversity ; 
Biodiversity is generally classified into three types
         Genetic diversity
         Species diversity
         Community (or) Ecosystem diversity

rRNA NOTES

rRNA ;
       Ribosomal RNA constites the larger part of total cellular RNA.
It is synthesis in a nucleus.

Types :-

 Eukaryotes - 28S rRNA , 80S rRNA , 5.8S rRNA , 5rRNA
28S, 5.8S and 5S rRNA occur in 60S Ribosomal subunits.
80S rRNA occurs in 40S ribosomal subunit.

Prokaryotes - 23S rRNA , 16S rRNA , 5S rRNA
23S rRNA , 5S rRNA occurs in 50S ribosomal subunit.
16S rRNA occurs in 70S ribosomal subunit.

Functions of rRNA ;
The rRNA formed extend in 2° structure and place an active role in conserved of mRNA , TRNA.
In Eukaryotes 50 to 5000 sets of rRNA genes and as many as million ribosomes maybe present in a single cell.
In prokaryotes have fewer sets of rRNA genes and ribosomes cell.
Make a protein ribosomes like together amino acid.
Liking amino acid together function of rRNA in the larger subunit of ribosomes.