Lipids

Lipids;
It is saturated and unsaturated.
Saturated;
Milk, butter, coconut oil , phone oil.
Unsaturated;
Butter, margarine

tRNA and function

tRNA;
Transfer RNA
10 to 15℅ of total cellular RNA.
Molecular weight 25000 to 30000 Da.
It is made up of single strand polynucleotide chain.
Structure of tRNA
    Primary structure
It is a linear sequence of nucleotides.
60 to 90 nucleotides long but most commonly 76 nucleotides.
   Secondary structure
It was proposed by Robert Holli in 1968.
   Tertiary structure
It help in recognize of amino acey tRNA synthesis enzyme.
    

MOIST HEAT STERILIZATION

Moist heat sterilization simple notes:

To above 100°c.

Saturated steam under pressure.

Steam sterilization - autoclave - Chamberland in 1884 hot saturated steam continues to enter the chamber reaches desired to and pressure 121°c for 15lbs.

It destroys all vegetative cells and spore in 10 - 12 minutes.

It effectively kill microorganisms by degrading nucleic acid and denaturing enzyme and proteins.

Distribution cell membranes.

Extended sterilization - 121°C at 15lbs for 70 minutes.

Biological indicator is used to for check the sterility of autoclave.

After autoclaving,the ampule is aseptically broken and the culture incubated for several days.

If the test organism does not grow in the medium, the sterilization run has been successful.

Sometimes either special taps that spells the word sterile or change in the color of the paper stripe represents the autoclave is sterile.

The method is convenient and save time.

DARK FIELD MICROSCOPE

Dark field microscope;

Produce a dark background against which objects are bright illuminated.

Uses a special kind of condenser called annular stop transmits a hollow cone of light from the source of illumination.

Light directed through the condenser does not enter the objective field is dark.

Some of the light rays will be scattered or diffracted.

Diffracted light will enter the objective and reach the eye.

Object appear bright against background.

Applications :
For examination of unstained microorganisms went mount hanging drop method.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS INTERNAL STRUCTURE

Eukaryotic cells ;

1. Multicellular form - common, with extensive tissue formation.
2. Cell wall - Present in plant and fungi cells only
3. Plasma membrane - present
4. Nucleus - present
5. Nuclear membrane - present
6. Chromatin with histone - present
7. Genetic material - Linear double - stranded DNA : genes frequently interrupted by intron sequence, especially in higher Eukaryotes.
9. Nucleoli and mitotic apparatus - present
10. Plasmids - Rare
11. Cellular organelles ;
 Mitochondria - present
 Endoplasmic reticulum - present
 Vacuoles - present
 Lysosomes - present
 Chloroplasts - present(only in plants)
 Centrioles - present (Absent in higher plants)
 Ribosomes present (80S)
Microtubules - present
Flagella - Complex 9+2 structure of tubulin and other protein.
12. Respiration - All aerobic, but some facultative anaerobes by secondary modifications.
13. Metabolic patterns - All share cytochrome electron transport chains, Krebs cycle oxidation, Embden - Meyerhof glucose metabolism or glycolysis
14. Photosynthetic enzyme - Enzyme packaged in plastids bound by membrane
15. Sexual system - Both sexes involved in sexual participation and entire genomes transferred; alternation of haploid and diploid generation is also evident.

FUNCTION OF THE CHLOROPLAST : PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis ;
It is well evident now that the process of photosynthesis consists of the following two steps:

1. Light reaction : 
It is also called Hill reaction, photosynthetic electron transfer reaction or photochemical reactions.
In light reaction solar energy is trapped in the form of chemical energy of ATP and as reducing power in NADPH.
During it, oxygen is evolved by photolysis or splitting of water molecule.
Light  reaction occur in thylakoid membrane.

2. Dark reaction :
It is also called Calvin reaction, photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle (PCR cycle), carbon-fixation reaction or thermo-chemical reaction.
In dark reaction, the reducing capacity of NADPH and the energy of ATP are utilized in the conversion of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate.
Such a process of "carbon fixation" occurs in the stroma of chloroplast.

MICRONUTRIENTS

Micronutrients ;

Mo:-
Involved in enzymatic reduction of ammonia conversion of in organic phosphate organic form.

Zn:-
Involved in production of growth in hormones and chlorophyll active in respiration and carbohydrate synthesis.

Be:-
Involved in production of growth hormones and chlorophyll active in respiration in carbohydrate synthesis.

Cu:-
Involved in photosynthesis, assito in chlorophyll synthesis. Used as reaction catalysts.

Co:-
Compound of some vitamins.

Mn:-
Enzymatic cofactors.
Vitamins - RNA , DNA
Encoding part of recomplex in pashate from is part cell m.m cell.

Thymine:-
Essential as co- enzyme in citric acid cycle.

INDUSTRIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

Industrial Biotechnology simple notes ;
Media preparation providing of microorganisms substrate for product production.

Fermentation - Fermenter

Conversion of sugar - alcohol,acid,gas
Alcohol - wine
Acid - glucose
Gas - Carbon dioxide

Fermeter - is a device in which the cultivated and motivated to produce a derived product.
Upstream - harvest of product from media and purification.
Downstream - provides media, substrate, microorganisms - for the production of product.

To learn about various bio process and engineering techniques and is important in industries.

Reduction of energy consumption as well as pollution and waste generation for product.

Benefits ;
Develop new products.
Improve industrial process Replacement of petroleum based feedstock.
Improved product quantity.

BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity definition ;
Biodiversity is the variety and differences among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems.

Significance of biodiversity ;
1. Biodiversity is very important for human life as we depend on plants, microorganisms, and animals for our food, medicine and industrial products.
2. Biodiversity protects the fresh air, clean water and productive land.
3. It is also important for forestry, fisheries and agriculture, which depend on rich variety of various biological resources available in nature.
4. Loss of biodiversity has serious economic and social costs for any country.

Loss of biodiversity ;
1. The farmers introduce new hybrid seeds in agriculture fields.
2. Human activities like deforestation, reclamation and construction of dams.
3. Increasing industrial activities.

Levels of biodiversity ; 
Biodiversity is generally classified into three types
         Genetic diversity
         Species diversity
         Community (or) Ecosystem diversity

rRNA NOTES

rRNA ;
       Ribosomal RNA constites the larger part of total cellular RNA.
It is synthesis in a nucleus.

Types :-

 Eukaryotes - 28S rRNA , 80S rRNA , 5.8S rRNA , 5rRNA
28S, 5.8S and 5S rRNA occur in 60S Ribosomal subunits.
80S rRNA occurs in 40S ribosomal subunit.

Prokaryotes - 23S rRNA , 16S rRNA , 5S rRNA
23S rRNA , 5S rRNA occurs in 50S ribosomal subunit.
16S rRNA occurs in 70S ribosomal subunit.

Functions of rRNA ;
The rRNA formed extend in 2° structure and place an active role in conserved of mRNA , TRNA.
In Eukaryotes 50 to 5000 sets of rRNA genes and as many as million ribosomes maybe present in a single cell.
In prokaryotes have fewer sets of rRNA genes and ribosomes cell.
Make a protein ribosomes like together amino acid.
Liking amino acid together function of rRNA in the larger subunit of ribosomes.

CONSTITUTES OF FOOD

CONSTITUTES OF FOOD;
To get the knowledge about constituents of food & properties with is central to food science.

Food is a substance consumed to provide nutrition support for an organism.

It is usually plant / animal origin.

The substance is assimilated by the organism is provided a energy and stimulated growth.

2 types;
Major : carbohydrate , proteins , Fat (lipids)
Minor : vitamins , minerals

Some inorganic and mineral compound and different group of organic substance in small preparation.
      e.g , Emulsifier,acid,oxidase, pigments, Flavors, Antioxidant.

Water is a next constituents. Whish is present in 60℅ in human body.

The composition of the food the compounds organized. Give a food in diurnal characteristic the food.
              

WATSON AND CRICK MODEL

WATSON AND CRICK MODEL ;

Watson and Crick model of DNA replication suggested that once DNA replication is initiated, the two original polynucleotide strands of the duplex will unwind, so that each can serve as the template for a new strand.

TYPES OF RIBOSOMES

Ribosomes;

The ribosomes occur in cells, both Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. In Prokaryotic cells the ribosomes often occur freely in the cytoplasm.
In eukaryotic cells the ribosomes either occur freely in the cytoplasm or remain attached to the outer surface of membrane of endoplasmic reticulum.

TYPES OF RIBOSOMES ;
        Recently accuroding to the size and the sedimentation coefficient (S) two types of ribosomes have been recognised.

70S Ribosomes;
             The 70S ribosomes are comparatively smaller in size and have sedimentation coefficient 70S and the molecular weight 2.7×106 daltons.
One dalton equals the weight of hydrogen atom.
According to the data of electron microscopy the dimension of the dry particles of 70S ribosomes are 170×170×200 A°.
They occur in the Prokaryotic cells of the blue green algae and bacteria and also in mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells.

80S Ribosomes;
              The 80S ribosomes some have the sedimentation coefficient of 80S and the molecular weight 40 × 10×10×10×10×10×10 daltons.
The 80S ribosomes occur in eukaryotic cells of the plants and animals.
The ribosomes of mitochondria and chloroplasts are always smaller than 80S cytoplasmic ribosomes and are comparable to Prokaryotic ribosomes in both size and sensitivity to antibiotics, although their sedimentation values vary in different phyla, e.g., 77S in mitochondria of Fungi , 60S in mitochondria of mammals and 60S in mitochondria of animals in general.
The ribosomes of chloroplasts are 70S type.

PROTOZOA

What is Protozoa ;

Protozoa is the primitive group of animals.

Proto - means primitive & Zoon means animal .

Study of Protozoa - protozoology

Unicellular , eukaryotic , microscopic observation.

Characteristics ;

They may be aquatic mostly found in moisture habitat including sewage, sludge .

3000 sps are present in parasitic to animals & humans.

Factors that control their population growth are light , temperature , PH & nutrients.

    Optimum temperature - 16° - 25° c
    Maximum temperature - 35° - 45°c

Organ of locomotion - pseudopodia , Celia , flagella.

Reproduction by fission / binary / division.

They could be pathogens to humans & animals.

Either Endoparasites.

Classification ;

They can be classified in to 4 groups based on it structure.

1. Rhizopoda / sarcodima
2. Mastigopora
      - Trypanosoma
      - Leishmania
      - Trichomonas
      - Giardia
3. Approximately
4. Ciliate 

PROKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE DETAILS

Prokaryotic cell ;

Cell wall - present in most but in all cells

Plasma membrane - present 

Nucleus - Absent

Nuclear membra - Absent

Chromatin with histone - Absent

Genetic material - Circular or linear , double stranded DNA : genes are not interrupted by intron 

Nucleoli and mitotic apparatus - Absent

Plasmids - commonly present

CELLULAR ORGANELLES :

       1. Mitochondria - Absent

       2. Endoplasmic reticulum - Absent

       3. Vacuoles - Absent

       4. Lysosome - Absent

       5. Chloroplasts - Absent

       6. Centrioles - Absent

       7. Ribosomes - present ( 70S )

       8. Microtubules - Absent

       9. Flagella - Simple structure composed of the protein flagellin

      

Respiration - Many strict anaerobes

 ( Oxygen fatal )

Metabolic patterns - Great variations

Sexual system - Rare : if present one way ( and usually partial ) ; transfer of DNA from donor to recipient cell occurs.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL

Animal cell ;

Animal cells are generally small size .

Cell wall is absent.

Except the protozoan Eugenia no animal cell possesses plastics.

Vacuoles in animal cells are many and small.

Animal cell have a single highly complex and prominent Golgi apparatus.

Animal cells have centrosome and centrioles.

Plant cell ;

Plant cells are larger than animal cells.

The plasma membrane of plant cell is surrounded by a rigid cell wall of cellulose.

Plastids are present.

Most mature plant cells have a large Central sap vacuole.

Plant cells have many simpler units of Golgi apparatus, called dictyosomes.

Plant cells lack centrosome and centrioles.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS

What is Eukaryotic cells ;

The eukaryotic cells ( Eu - good , karyotic - nucleated ) are essentially two envelope system and they are very much larger than Prokaryotic cells. Secondary membrane envelope the nucleus and other internal organelles and to a great extent they pervade the cytoplasm as the endoplasmic reticulum. The eukaryotic cells are the true cells which occur in the plants and the animals. Though the eukaryotic cells have different shape, size , and physiology ; all the cell's are typically composed of plasma membrane, cytoplasm and its organelles. Mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum , ribosomes, Golgi apparatus,etc., And a true nucleus.

Here the Nuclear contents, such as DNA ,RNA , nucleoproteins and nucleolus remain separated from the cytoplasm by the thin .

PROKARYOTIC CELL

What is Prokaryotic cell ;

The Prokaryotic ( pro - primitive or before ; Martin - nucleus ) are small , simple and most primitive. They are probably the first to come into existence perhaps 3.5 billion years ago. 

The Prokaryotic cell are the most primitive cell from the morphology point of view.

They occur in the bacteria.

A Prokaryotic cell is essentially a one - envelope system organized in depth.

It consists of central nuclear components ( DNA , RNA and nuclear proteins ) surrounded by cytoplasmic ground substance, with the whole enveloped by a plasma membrane.

Neither the Nuclear apparatus nor the respiratory enzyme system are separately enclosed by membranes, although the inner surface of the plasma membrane itself may serve for enzyme attachment. 

The cytoplasm of a Prokaryotic cell lacks in well defined cytoplasmic organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus , Mitochondria , centrioles , ect . 

In the nutshell,the Prokaryotic cells are distinguished from the eukaryotic cells primarily on the basis of what they lack, and any other cytoplasmic membrane.

They also do not contain Nucleic , cytoskeleton , controlled and basal bodies.

LYMPHOID CELLS

LYMPHOID CELL ;

20 - 40 ℅ of  total body WBC & 99℅ of cell in the lymph .

Approximately 10¹¹ Lymphocyte human body.

Circulate in lymph & blood ; migrate in to tissue , specs & organs .
 
      Lymphocyte ;
                  B cell
                  T cell
                  Null cell

B cell - T cell : Resting S & T cells are small motile , Non phagocytic cell. It has not interact with antigen called Naive cell , present in G0 phase of cell cycle.

G0 - G1 - S - G2 - M , Lymphocyte enlarged to lymphoblast

       Proliferate
                     * Memory cell
                     * Effector cell

MILESTONES IN IMMUNOLOGY

 

Immunity ;

       Immunity state of protection from infectious disease.

MILESTONES FROM IMMUNOLOGY ;

15th century - Chinese - smallpox
Immunity drived from - Latin word ' Immunis '

430 BC - Thucydides - describing a plaque in Athens .
Those who had recovered from plaque could nurse the sick. Because they would not contract the disease second time.

15th century - Crude attempts to induce immunity performed by Chinese & Turks .
    Variolation ;  
                Dried crusts derived from smallpox pustules either inhaled into the nostrils or inserted into the skin.

1718 - Lady Mary worthey Montague - wife of British Ambassador to Constantinople
- she observed the positive effect of variola & Applied her own children.

1798 - Edward jenner - Milk made who had contracted to cow pox were subsequently immune to smallpox.
 Introducing fluid from cow pox pustle into people might protected them from smallpox.

Louis Pasteur - Induction of immunity of cholera .

 1885 - Pasteur administered first vaccine to human .

1890 - Emil Von Behring & Shibasabure , kitasato serum from animal.
Previously immunized to diphtheria could transfer the immune state to unimmunized animal.

1883 - Elie Met Chinkoff
The cell also contribute the immune state of an animal.
 
1950 - Lymphocyte was identified as the cell responsible for both cellular & humoral immunity.

1900 - Paul Ehrlich
     Blood cell expressed a variety of side chain receptors that could with infectious agent & inactive them .

1950 - Clonal Selection theory
      An individual Lymphocyte express membrane receptors that are specific for distinct antigen.